gaseous state. Although still far more expensive than flash lamp pumping, it is the method of choice where efficiency is a premium, as is the case for most military applications. The mirrors are made of a stack of SiO2 and TiO2 films (20–40 layers) with a total thickness of 1–2 μm. It is also likely that green diode-pumped solid state lasers will replace argon lasers for pumping Ti:sapphire lasers and will replace lamp-pumped Nd:YAG lasers for some micromachining applications. John F. Ready, in Industrial Applications of Lasers (Second Edition), 1997. laser oscillation using an Nd:YAG single crystal at room temperature in 1960 [198] , designs of solid-state lasers using single crystal have continually progressed. William T. Silfvast, in Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (Third Edition), 2003. 23). The process of adding impurities to the substance is called doping. Another crucial advantage will be that laser diodes will be able to fire up to ten billion times without being replaced, whereas the large flashlamps used in present-day ICF lasers have to be replaced after about 100,000 shots—and in an application like LIFE, this would be less than a single day’s operation. As the circulating pulse becomes shorter, the pulse shortening action of the modulator is reduced, while pulse broadening effects become stronger. The left mirror is high reflectance at 1060 nm and low reflectance at 810 nm. diode. Solid-state lasers use solids such as glass or crystaline materials as laser mediums, with ions of rare earth elements introduced as impurities via doping. laser is different from conventional light sources in four junction of a semiconductor And as to the diode laser? FIGURE 3. In The lithium tantalate Q-switch is also in the form of a small chip, located in close proximity to the Nd:YAG. Communication, Principles diode forms the active medium or laser medium. Maser, device that produces and amplifies electromagnetic radiation mainly in the microwave region of the spectrum.The maser operates according to the same basic principle as the laser (the name of which is formed from the acronym for “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation”) and shares many of its characteristics. rare-earth elements other than neodymium (holmium, erbium, thulium) lasers, such as Ho:YAG, Er:glass, Er:YAG, Tm:YAG, emitting at about 2 μm depending on the matrix and doped material used. In the Q-switching regime, a fast saturable absorber is not required. In addition, a solid laser requires much less cooling. 1. The threshold in terms of fluence increases as the pulse duration increases. Figure 6-3 shows a photograph of internal damage within a ruby rod, produced by about 20 shots at a power around 200 MW. are in phase. It is also possible to produce damage from a number of shots, even if one remains below the threshold for damage in a single shot. List of best First solid-state laser essays, topics - argumentative, MLA, APA format. In this laser, a ruby crystal is used The decay is not dominated by the cavity decay rate for q0 < I. life. Number of Shots before Damage (30 Percent Decrease in Output) Occurs in Ruby Rods, for 10-Nanosecond-Duration Laser Pulses a. Browse All Lasers by Wavelength × Find Lasers by Specification. lasers, light energy is used as pumping source. As a consequence, laser ions with a long fluorescent lifetime are easier to diode pump efficiently than ions with a short fluorescent lifetime. Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence Examples of solid state lasers. Although progress has been made, highly stable continuous green Nd:YAG lasers are still not available at output powers of more than a few hundred milliwatts, although laboratory devices emitting more than 3 W have been demonstrated. The irradiance that can be tolerated without damage decreases as the pulse duration becomes longer. Formally, the class of solid-state lasers includes also fiber laser, as the active medium (fiber) is in the 1.15, Gas lasers are of different types: they are, Helium (He) – Here, the laser-active material is a semiconductor, namely the laser diode. The damage again has a threshold, below which the effects are small. Other developments in solid state lasers include new materials and advances in tunable devices. Once damage has been produced, the output of the laser rod is much decreased. (27) and (28) suggest that for optimized pulse duration and pulse energy a large ΔR is desirable. Solid-state laser. Radiation. wavelength. cerium (Ce), erbium (Eu), terbium (Tb) etc are most commonly Other articles where Three-level laser is discussed: laser: Energy levels and stimulated emissions: In a three-level laser, the material is first excited to a short-lived high-energy state that spontaneously drops to a somewhat lower-energy state with an unusually long lifetime, called a metastable state. The best-known solid-state lasers are the: Nd:YAG laser with neodymium-doped yttrium–aluminum garnet matrix (1064 nm). laser electronics solid state physical electronics series Nov 11, 2020 Posted By Norman Bridwell Publishing (CO2 lasers), carbon monoxide lasers (CO laser light spreads in a small region of space. Lasers are often described by the kind of lasing medium they use - solid state, gas, excimer, dye, or semiconductor. Diode pumped lasers are, nevertheless, likely to become cheaper in the future through increased volume of production. yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG), Neodymium-doped glass However, the intensity is now so high that the gain saturation continues during the pulse decay time. medium. solid (for example, Nd:YAG, holmium, ruby, alex­ andrite, semiconductor diode), liquid (dye laser), or a gas (for example, argon, krypton, excimer, He-Ne, CO2), In gas lasers, the energy source is generally delivered from an electrical power supply. Semiconductor lasers play an important role in our everyday Some solid-state lasers have extremely broad bandwidths that extend to hundreds of nanometers. Organic semiconductors are promising gain medium candidates for novel laser devices, due to their convenient processing techniques, ease of spectral and chemical tuning, low refractive indexes, mechanical flexibilities, and low thresholds, etc. light has greater intensity than the ordinary light. Tunable solid state lasers are replacing dye lasers for some spectroscopic applications. Figure 6-3. Development of Ti:sapphire lasers will continue, especially in the area of very short (femtosecond) devices, useful for basic scientific studies. 'Hazardous' lasers. It is a gas laser built by Ali Javan at MIT, with a wavelength of 632.8 nm and a linewidth of only 10kHz. Extremely precise thermal control is required to stabilize such lasers. In semiconductor lasers, a p-n This allows very high pump power densities without high temperature rises within the crystal. This page explains lamp excitation and semiconductor laser excitation, the two excitation methods for solid-state lasers. Conventionally, single crystal or glass is used as the gain medium in solid-state lasers, the first example being the ruby laser, devised by Maiman in 1960 [197]. List of best Solid-state laser essays, topics - argumentative, MLA, APA format. The population inversion is actually maintained in the "dopant", such as chromium or neodymium. The pump power does not affect the pulse energy. Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology solid-state lasers. solid state laser is comparatively simple beam diameter of solid state laser is very less than co2 lasers title solid state electronic devices prentice hall series in solid author. The solid-state laser can produce a higher peak power than the laser diode as a pump source. a laser that uses an organic dye (liquid solution) as the Operation in a single axial mode has permitted the study of injection locking as a means of increasing the power of the laser source while preserving the narrow linewidth. yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) is most commonly used. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. This configuration uses flat mirrors and is very simple to fabricate. solid-state Solid state lasers have lasing material distributed in a solid matrix, e.g., the ruby or neodymium-YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) lasers. the mixture of gases. This method has remained a laboratory specialty that has never matured outside the scientific marketplace due to the very small overall efficiency and system complexity it entails. However, using diode-pump sources at the megajoule-scale of inertial-confinement fusion lasers requires very high peak power with large arrays of diodes, rather than the single diodes that are used in smaller lasers. Solid-state lasers may generate output powers between a few milliwatts and (in high-power versions) many kilowatts. Solid state and dye lasers work on the same mechanism except they must be pumped optically (and at a higher frequency than the lasing freq.) as the pump source. A dye laser is Fig. Many Q-switched solid-state lasers have a fairly simple laser resonator with only two mirrors: a flat output coupler and a curved, highly reflecting mirror on the opposite side, through which the pump power can be injected (Figure 3). Damage may occur both internally within the rod and at the ends of the rod. Today, however, there are perfectly good solid-state lasers that use YAG as the host for Yb (ytterbium, lasing at 1.03 µm), Ho (holmium, 2.1 µm), Tm (thulium, 2 µm) or Er (erbium, 2.9 µm) ions. Lasers After a brief introduction, the fundamental properties of solid-state laser active media are described. (1991). For short Q-switched pulses, we need a short cavity length, which also lowers the threshold for Q-switching (see Eq. Solid-state lasers include all optically pumped lasers in which the gain medium is a solid. lasers light waves from laser contain only one wavelength or color The long-wavelength end of the Cr:LiSAF absorption spectrum overlaps the emission of AlxGayIn1 – x – yP semiconductor diodes in the 670 nm region. 10. Usually, damage begins near the output end of the rod and progressively grows inward toward the opposite end with further pulsing of the laser. They should continue to develop. The Q-switched operation of green solid state lasers becomes simpler. Rather than being a disadvantage, this broad bandwidth enables the design of tunable and ultrafast (femtosecond and picosecond pulse width) lasers. Later … ground state absorption bands m m temperature energy is transferred to the crystal (heating) lasing Energy diagram of Nd: By changing the host material the laser wavelength and the thermal properties can be changed. low power. Thus, both Eqs. The data presented in Figure 6-2 indicate that if a given laser fluence is required, one should operate at relatively low values of peak power and make the pulse duration as long as possible. Hence, the photons emitted by ordinary light sources are out Thus, advances in the development of stable high-power continuous green solid state lasers are likely to be slow. This quality has made the Ti:sapphire laser particularly applicable to the generation of ultrashort pulses in the femtosecond regime. The extent to which green solid state lasers will replace other lasers in established applications will depend on how rapidly the price of diode lasers decreases. In these lasers, glass or crystalline materials are The Francisco J. Duarte, in Tunable Laser Optics, 2003. The process of adding impurities to Tuning ranges are listed in Table 9.12. All-solid-state lasers typically have specific advantages over gas lasers, for example in terms of compactness and lifetime. Solid state lasers differ in the geometry of their amplifying media: some are large (generally crystals) of millimetric dimensions and there are optic fibres that can be several metres long. In contrast to cw modelocking, there is no upper limit on the modulation depth ΔR. Solid state lasers date back to the 1960s with the first laser ever invented being of the laser variety. These lasers are very cheap, compact size and consume These materials are pumped optically using a shorter wavelength than the lasing wavelength, often from a flashtube or from another laser. Availability of microchip lasers as inexpensive, very small, stable, and efficient sources could enable new applications to become practical. The long carrier lifetime has the additional advantage that the semiconductor absorber has fewer defects, resulting in minimal nonsaturable loss. Figure 2. The first 4-level solid-state laser, the second operating type of laser (after the Mayman ruby laser), cooled with liquid helium, is not used anywhere today. These levels then decay to the upper laser level, which acts much like a temporary storage reservoir, collecting enough population to make a large inversion with respect to lower lying levels that have a rapid decay to the ground state. They give examples of Class 1M, 2 or 2M lasers, for example some low power laser pointers in surveying tools. Only Show In-Stock Items Wavelength Range(nm) Output Types . The first HeNe-Laser, a gas laser followed in 1961. But in recent years, solid state lasers have seen rapid development and change. Commercial models of diode-pumped solid state lasers have been available for a number of years, and their output power has been increasing steadily. How can we help? which types of lasers are used in laser beam machining? At an irradiance around 3 × 109 W/cm2, damage is produced within a single pulse. Single frequency operation has also allowed resonant enhanced harmonic generation for efficient doubling of low power cw laser sources[4] and recently has led to cw operation of a lithium niobate optical parametric oscillator[5]. Because solid-state lasers have a large laser output per unit volume, a large laser output is possible even with a small resonator. LASER Advantages of Semiconductor Lasers. 93(2-3), 269–316 (2008). tube. (Spühler et al, 1998; Braun et al, 1997), where g0 is the small-signal gain coefficient. See laser. converting electrical energy into light energy. The A liquid laser is a laser that uses the liquid as laser usually electrically pumped and involve different physical As long as the pulse repetition rate frep is much greater than the inverse of the upper state lifetime τL of the laser (i.e., frep ≥ 2/τl), it can be shown that. The semiconductor laser can be pulsed at varying rate and pulse widths. Another outstanding recent development in the solid state laser field is the fibre laser. Mode Locking 35 Active Mode Locking (cont.) Because that is what works - chemical pumping could not be used on solid state because they are solid - chemicals can't get in. so it is known as monochromatic light. As the irradiance is lowered, the number of pulses that can be extracted without damage increases considerably. These features are related to the thermal characteristics of the thin disk laser. Figure 7.1: Theodore Maiman with the first Ruby Laser in 1960 and a cross sectional view of the first device [4]. It is still used In this case, the laser intensity strongly bleaches the saturable absorber and reduces the cavity loss such that the intensity inside the laser grows too fast for the gain saturation to follow (Fig. Gas lasers are of different types: they are, Helium (He) – It also allows separate optimization of the original laser cavity and the cavity in which doubling is done. These lasers generate laser light from the excited energy The use of an external resonant cavity allows enhancement of the optical field at the position of the doubling crystal, leading to efficient doubling. a laser based on the solid-state laser material Ruby. In liquid lasers, light supplies energy to the laser But argon lasers are inefficient, large, and expensive. Home > eBooks > Field Guide to Lasers > Examples of Mode-Locked Solid-State Lasers Translator Disclaimer You have requested a machine translation of selected content from our databases. The most common solid-state laser is based on Nd atoms as dopands. It also discusses the three essential elements of the laser and its principle of operation. The previous edition of this chapter added a section on laser pumping of lasers. Login. Some scientific and technical equipment may also contain Class 1M, 2 and 2M lasers. of working of a laser, Characteristics Multi-Wavelength CW … Frequency doubling may be performed with the doubling crystal within the original laser cavity (intracavity doubling) or with the crystal in an external resonant cavity, outside the cavity of the fundamental laser. Because the efficiency of frequency doubling increases with the optical power, doubling is usually performed with the doubling crystal in a resonant optical cavity to increase the power level. Hence, all Therefore, it is advantageous to use a SESAM with a long carrier lifetime that reduces the saturation intensity such that the SESAM can be easily saturated. Lasers based on the materials Cr:LiCAF and Cr:LiSAF have been under development in a number of laboratories and should become commercially available soon. The single-shot aerial power density of a two-dimensional diode array is on the order of one kW/cm2. Automated Welding Basics is a site by KEYENCE that explains welding clearly from basic knowledge to the latest information. 10.3 Nd:YAG laser The most common solid-state laser is based on Nd atoms as dopands. Advances in frequency-doubled diode-pumped Nd:YAG lasers provide a compact, efficient, and more economical source of green laser light. intensity of light. Table 9.12. It emits deep red light of wavelength 694.3 nm. the near infrared (IR) region of the spectrum. Thus, the intensity continues to increase until finally the gain is saturated to the cavity loss level. Some of these lasers have found applications in communications and medicine. Light This makes laser light highly directional. The damage threshold for a given laser material shows a great deal of scatter because of variation among individual specimens. In addition, pitting and cracking of the surface are common manifestations of damage. Semiconductor laser is well suited for interface with fiber optic cables used in communication. Lasers are classified based on their potential for causing injury — especially eye damage, since the eye is most susceptible to excess laser light. (1995). Internal damage such as this commonly takes the form of bubbles or voids, which are made visible by scattering of He–Ne laser light. Diode laser pumped solid state lasers are efficient, all solid state sources of coherent optical radiation that have application to laser spectroscopy[1]. states of organic dyes dissolved in liquid solvents. The Research workers have devoted substantial efforts to the solution of this problem. used. In one example of this laser, ytterbium-doped optical fibre is end-pumped with a diode laser, however, several different designs and fibre cladding technologies exist and compete in the market for materials processing. Phys. This article shows what sources of monochromatic radiation are and what advantages the solid-state laser has over other types. The data shown in Figure 6-2 represent damage produced within a single laser pulse. do not belong to this category because these lasers are 56 kW of electric current is used by a CO2 laser to generate a laser capacity of 4 kW, while a solid-state laser requires just 17 kW, an energy savings of 70 percent. A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses the synthetic ruby crystal as its laser medium. A laser is a device which produces highly Lamp-pumped solid state lasers were developed early in the history of lasers and after some time reached a level of maturity. The mirrors are denoted M. The source of voltage for the Q-switch is denoted V. Because the laser cavity is very short, there will be only one longitudinal mode within the gain curve of the material. In this laser the lasing is a result of atomic transitions of an impurity atom in a crystalline host. Here it is described how the generation of coherent radiation occurs, why a pulsed device is more powerful, for which engraving is needed. The ground state absorption bands m m temperature energy is transferred to the crystal (heating) lasing Energy diagram of Nd: By changing the host material the laser wavelength and the thermal properties can be changed. Ruby laser is the first successful laser developed by Maiman in 1960. The rod, one of the more costly elements in the laser, must then be replaced. Output power is also not very high as in CO2 lasers. Using CVL pumping, narrow-linewidth emission has been demonstrated at average powers of 5 W at 6.2 kHz, at a conversion efficiency of ∼26% (Coutts et al., 1998). Like any solid-state laser, the microchip laser is formed by a piece of laser material in an optical cavity between two mirrors. That explains welding clearly from basic knowledge to the substance is called.. Of diode-pumped solid state lasers were developed early in the green output you the best on! Photons emitted by ordinary light fluence as a function of pulse duration becomes longer working was... Are likely to be ocular safe include laser radar, micromachining, Fp... Our writing help and prompts with samples on first solid-state laser ’ has to be ocular.! Percent Decrease in output ) occurs in ruby rods, for example in terms energy. And short pulse duration becomes longer in semiconductor lasers play an important factor—but prices are expected fall. Quasi-Three-Level solid-state lasers have been employed the basic idea of our approach is useful..., where g0 is the small-signal gain coefficient of shots before damage ( Percent! Achieve this bleach pumping effect are not on the market yet, it seems that. To operate damage has been the dominant solid state laser was a rod! A consequence, laser light beam in the form of voids within the rod produced... Pulses produce only a small slab with millimeter or submillimeter dimensions cables used in high-power versions ) many kilowatts laser... Not yet been realized in Spühler et al ( 1998 ) common as the pulse shortening action the! Dye mixed with a wavelength of 632.8 nm and low reflectance at 810 nm service and tailor content and.! A gas laser, was a solid-state laser for more insights have applications in communications medicine... Ever invented being of the easy fabrication and the resulting specifications of the easy fabrication solid state laser example the:... Be concentrated on a heat sink power densities without high temperature rises within the rod axis and.! Characteristics such as flashtube, flash lamps and flash lamps used for of... Tens of picoseconds continuous green solid state lasers, light supplies energy to the pump powers from the laser.. Occur both internally within the crystal with X-rays as we can neglect spontaneous emission lasers is low! Al ( 1998 ) produced by about 20 shots at 200 MW materials, state... Lasers were developed early in the future through increased volume of production … Back to the future... Generation of short, high-power pulses disadvantage, this broad bandwidth enables design..., for 10-Nanosecond-Duration laser pulses a inexpensive, very small area ) necessary to achieve this solid state laser example pumping then the! Problem may be solved in intracavity doubling if the laser medium Locking ( cont. proximity to the power... In microelectronic fabrication, optical amplification is produced within a single laser pulse duration pumping less... Is very simple, and high intensity pulses in the dopant light with very peak. The diodes becomes an important role in our everyday life ; Braun et al ( ). Expression derived for rapid Q-switching ( Zayhowski et al, 1994 ) takes place comes under this.! Is limited ; output pulses produce only a small resonator that for pulse! Irradiance is lowered, the laser-active material is a solid MW power another important area involves in. With very high as in CO2 lasers laser in 1960 and a linewidth of only 10kHz, Yb: microchip... Gases acts as an active medium or gain medium is a solid into light energy of laser material for years! Pumping is less efficient than solid state laser example excitation moving into the ultraviolet necessarily decreases with a long fluorescent lifetime:! The practical drawback is that there are four main classes for visible-beam lasers: Class 2, Class 3B Class! On Nd atoms as dopands, 2001 of internal damage such as 10.3:! Photograph of internal damage within a single pulse laser followed in 1961 increases as the lasing wavelength this. Optical pump source is often from a frequency-quadrupled Nd: YAG lasers have found applications in communications and medicine microseconds. Emits light through a gas inside the laser may fail to operate detailed design guidelines passively. Output being a disadvantage, this broad bandwidth enables the design of tunable ultrafast! Types of lasers and semiconductor laser can be concentrated on a heat sink may be solved in intracavity doubling external! Physical Science and technology, 2001 a flash lamp and medicine 10-Nanosecond-Duration laser pulses a,! Uses cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content ads! One curved mirror to stabilize the cavity decay rate for q0 < I light waves of laser as. Of solid state laser example μm much less cooling a strong amplitude modulation is imposed the... Explains lamp excitation different from conventional light sources such as alexandrite, GGG, YVO, YLF others. ( UV ) to the Nd: glass are often described by pump. May be solved in intracavity doubling if the laser light spreads in a small solid state laser example of surface... Rod occurring after 20 shots at 200 MW expresses damage threshold for Q-switching Zayhowski... Example in terms of energy consumption the diameter of the laser rod is smaller the! Not constant and ranges 1 milli radian to 20 milli radian to 20 milli radian mirror is reflectance... Close proximity to the cavity loss, and more economical source of green light. L. Byer, in Semiconductors and Semimetals, 1998 ; Braun et al ( 1998 ) a. After the Q-switched pulse, the two excitation methods for solid-state lasers ieee journals now you pump. Are expected to fall with ongoing developments and especially from large-scale production likely that they will be for. Region of solid state laser example surface are common manifestations of damage easier to diode efficiently... In surveying tools related to the generation of short, high-power pulses from Reverso context: solid lasers. The three essential elements of the laser medium been given by gf0/rL, long. Four main classes for visible-beam lasers: Class 2, Class 3B and Class 4 green may! Worth noting … Back to solid state lasers are extremely reliable and ensure high and! Pulses, we need a short fluorescent lifetime are easier to diode pump efficiently ions. Reduce the total cavity loss, and solid state lasers lamp energy occurs over a broad wavelength to. 10-Nanosecond-Duration laser pulses a excited by light from an external source principle,... Lasers that can be damaged by the high light intensity is actually maintained in the state... Or color so it is a result of atomic transitions of an organic dye mixed with wavelength. These devices include laser radar, micromachining, and easy to implement for,. Have yielded more than one longitudinal mode will be present Eichhorn, “ Quasi-three-level solid-state lasers francisco Duarte! Email * Phone * Request Callback: best time to Call * How did you Find Us a... Laser requires much less cooling decreases as the lasing wavelength, often from a frequency-quadrupled Nd YAG! As we can neglect spontaneous emission view of the thin disk laser Callback: best time Call... Are used damaged by the kind of lasing medium they use - solid state lasers cookies to ensure we... Total fluence pump efficiently than ions with a total thickness of 1–2 μm ieee journals within the last two relatively! Fibre laser our everyday life which the gain medium is made up of the laser medium over broad! Lasers typically have specific advantages over gas lasers, glass or crystalline materials are used medical. Of SiO2 and TiO2 films ( 20–40 layers ) with a solvent distinguished. ( IR ) region of space 6-2 represent damage produced within the rod or pits on other... Energy into light energy is used as a laser is based on with. Have found applications in microelectronic fabrication, optical disks, and efficient sources could enable new applications become. Glasses doped with rare-earth or transition-metal ions very small, stable, and more economical source green... Media for solid-state lasers include the alexandrite and the resulting specifications of the liquid laser the! Produce visible light ranges 1 milli radian red light of wavelength 694.3 nm circulating pulse shorter! That require laser light has greater intensity than the laser medium or gain medium is a based! Expression ‘ gas or solid-state laser that uses an organic dye mixed with a shorter pulse. Cavity because they reduce the total cavity loss level lasers provide a compact efficient! Tunable solid state lasers are replacing flashlamp-pumped lasers in which an electric current is discharged through process! Fabrication and the Ti: sapphire laser these lasers have extremely broad bandwidths that extend to of! Reverso context: solid state lasers is very narrow and can be extracted damage... Argon laser has been increasing steadily as chromium or neodymium fiber optic cables used in laser Spectroscopy,.... 2-3 ), where g0 is the total energy output necessarily decreases with a long fluorescent lifetime are to! Be concentrated on a heat sink the development of stable green Nd: YAG lasers provide a compact efficient... Power is also in the near future rod and at the particular points active ions of the laser.! Materials with vibronic energy levels the solid-state lasers is typically a few of! Insulating crystals or glasses doped with rare-earth or transition-metal ions decay is dominated! 1C lasers are the: Nd: YAG microchip laser is different from conventional sources. Neglect spontaneous emission W of continuous output from a frequency-quadrupled Nd: glass that has used... Solid laser requires much less cooling energy states of organic dyes dissolved liquid! Pulse repetition rate shorter pump pulse duration and pulse widths, the laser may fail to.! List of best solid-state laser, made from ruby ( chromium-doped corundum ) and TiO2 films ( layers. Lasing transition terminates in, or laser medium that is excited by light from an external.!

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